The role of emotion in racial prejudice Essay Example for Free

The role of emotion in racial prejudice Essay Racial prejudice was defined by Allport , one of the first researchers in psychology to investigate the issue, as an aversive or hostile attitude towards a person who belongs to a group, simply because he or she belongs to that group, and is therefore presumed to have the objectionable qualities ascribed to that group. It is an antipathy based on a faulty and inflexible generalization (Allport, 1954). Racial prejudice exists on 3 levels: behavioral, cognitive and affective. The actual discrimination or unequal treatment towards a particular group based on their race is the behavioral component of racial prejudice. The cognitive component is made up of stereotypes. Stereotypes are categories of cognitions concerning the members of a particular group. These cognitions are usually simple, often over generalized, and frequently inaccurate. Stereotypes are not simply abstractions about group categories. They can act as cognitive filters through which we select what information to use, what to ignore, and how to interpret it. Stereotypes do not exist in isolation. They are accompanied by emotions, which are usually expressed in terms that can be distributed along a continuum ranging from the intensely negative to the very positive. (Simpson and Yinger, 1972) The emotional level is a major element of racism, because it serves as the motivation for stereotyping. Stereotypes would not be so powerful without affective links. After the cognitive level has been challenged and undermined, one continues to maintain stereotypes at the emotional or affective level. As the intensity of emotion increases, so does the level of prejudice. This paper will explore the influence of emotions on ones unconscious and conscious inclinations towards stereotyping and racism. Fear, anxiety, disgust and anger are all emotions that exist at the root of racism. According to an evolutionary perspective, fear is one of the most motivational emotions humans have in their bodies to keep them alive. It protects humans from danger, by motivating them to fight back when they are being threatened. This fight manifests itself in many different ways, but in the context of racism it is in the form of discrimination towards an out-group. This explains racism as a means of fighting back when an individuals fear has been aroused due to perceived threat to an ones fundamental needs by the out-group. Fear exists in the reptilian brain, the very basic area of the brain and it can sometimes be aroused unconsciously. Fear can cause neurotransmitters to fill the brain, bringing an individual to such a heightened state of arousal that the cause of fear becomes internalized. (Le Doux, 2002) In the context of racism, if an individual or group is identified with that arousal, an association is made that is not easily removed. This evolutionary logic leads to many thoughts about factors in modern day society leading to the acquisition of new stereotypes and prejudices, as well as the endurance existing stereotypes and prejudices. For example, a recent study conducted by Schaller, Park and Mueller investigated the effect of ambient darkness and thoughts about danger on stereotypes about Blacks. The participants were placed in either a well lit or dark room, then they were presented photographs of black males and asked to rate how much they represented the cultural stereotype. The study also included a separate questionnaire to assess each participants thoughts of living in a dangerous world. The results showed that when the participants were in the well lit room, their level of perceived danger in the world did not have an effect on the intensity of their stereotypes of blacks. However, when the participants were in the dark room, stereotypes of blacks were more intense in association with their level of perceived danger in the world. To people everywhere darkness is a threat, it presents danger due to vulnerability and has evil connotations. This study clearly illustrates the relationship between racism and fear. (Schaller, Park Mueller, 2002). Inter-group anxiety has been proven to be another motivator for racial prejudice. High levels of intergroup anxiety may amplify normative behavioral patterns, cause cognitive and motivational information processing biases, intensify self-awareness, and augment emotional reactions (Stephan Stephan, 1985). Stephan and Stephan proposed that intergroup anxiety stems mainly from the anticipation of negative consequences for oneself during contact. Much of the intergroup anxiety may be caused by minimal previous contact with the outgroup, the existence of large status differentials, and a high ratio of outgroup to ingroup members. Stephan and Stephans own study of Hispanic Americans perceptions of Anglos showed that high voluntary contact was negatively associated, and that high believed dissimilarity and stereotyping were positively associated, with intergroup anxiety. It was predicted that increased contact (under appropriate conditions) would be associated with decreased intergroup anxiety and that, in the context of our field study of minority and majority religious groups, intergroup anxiety would be higher for minority group members. (Stephan Stephan, 1985) The Social-identity theory is widely used as an explanation for prejudice. According to Social-Identity theory, an individual attains self-concept and self-esteem through membership to a particular group. A high need for esteem and belonging are often associated with racism because of the psychological need it fulfill it to feel superior, (which in actuality is a state of inferiority). In order for individuals to feel as though their group is meaningful and has status, it is unconsciously necessary for them to place others below them. In applying emotion to this model of prejudice, it is evident that fear of rejection acts as a motivator for out-group discrimination in order to protect ones own ego. A newer model of prejudice; Intergroup Emotions Theory, combines this social identity perspective with the assumptions of appraisal theories of emotion. Intergroup Emotions Theory claims that emotions are caused by the collective aspect of the self. For example, when an outgroup is appraised as threatening an ingroup, negative intergroup emotions such as fear or anger may result, and become part of a general prejudice against the outgroup that may motivate discriminatory behavior. Thus, Intergroup Emotions Theory holds that emotions experienced by individuals with respect to their group memberships make a unique contribution to prejudice and intergroup relations. In association with the Intergroup Emotion Theory which recognizes the appraisals and attribution process in racial motives. Esses, Haddock and Zanna point out that there is more to prejudice than merely the attribution of stereotypes to groups. Their research suggests that the emotions elicited by a particular group are important in determining ones level of prejudice. When one is in a good mood, he or she is likely to evaluate members of out-groups more favorably than when he or she is in a bad mood. (Esses, Haddock Zanna, 1993) Another example of the role emotion plays in predicting racial prejudice is illustrated in a study by Esses and Dovidio. They found that when white students were shown a videotape of a black man experiencing discrimination in several situations and asked to focus on their feelings about each situation, they felt more positive toward blacks and were more willing to interact with blacks in the future than students who were told to pay attention to their thoughts in this regard. Aversive racism is yet another way in which emotion is seen as a factor in racism. Aversive racism is accompanied by feelings of anxiety, which are caused by intergroup expectancies and by the contribution of ignorance that often coexists with fear. Gaertner and Dovidio state that aversive racism is excluded from conscious awareness and amplifies positive behaviours toward a minority group. Negative feelings follow these overly positive behaviours. Gaertner and Dovidio indicate that there are several possible negative emotions involved such as discomfort, anxiety, uneasiness, disgust and even fear. These emotions occur because of the extreme cognitive exercise necessary to avoid expressing unacceptable racist comments. Once again it is being suggested that negative emotions mediate the relationship between stereotypes, which are unavoidable, and prejudice that includes affect. (Gaertner and Dovidio, 1986) The studies mentioned throughout this paper prove that emotions play a significant role in human tendencies towards racial prejudices. It is also evident that these tendencies can be in many ways unconscious. However, much of this research has also shown that if humans are made more aware of the role that their emotions play in these prejudice thoughts and actions, they can learn to monitor them consciously. Also other research has noted that by increasing intergroup contact racism between groups will decrease. Racial prejudice is a major social problem that must be alleviated and more research in this area will always be beneficial in helping society become more unified. Works Cited Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, Doubleday, 1958 Esses, V. Dovidio, J. (2002). The role of emotions in determining willingness to engage in intergroup contact. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 637-649. Esses, V. M. , Haddock, G. , Zanna, M. P. (1993). Values, stereotypes, and emotions as determinants of intergroup attitudes. In D. M. Mackie D. L. Hamilton (Eds. ), Affect, cognition and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 137-166). San Diego: Academic Press. Gaertner, S. L. , Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio S. L. Gaertner (Eds. ), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. LeDoux, Joseph. The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. Viking, 2002. Schaller, M. , Park, J. , Mueller, A. (2002). Fear of the dark: Interactive effects of beliefs about dander and ambient darkness on ethnic stereotypes. Personality and Social Bulletin, 28, 1242-1254. Simpson G. E. Yinger J. M, Racial and Cultural Minorities. An Analysis of Prejudice and Discrimination, New York 1972, p. 24. Stephan, W. G. , Stephan, C. W. (1985). Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41(3), 157-175.

What it Means to be an American Essay example -- Papers USA Citizenshi

What it Means to be an American What does it mean to be an American? In my eyes to be an American means to have privileges, rights, and freedom. America isn't perfect, but it is one of the only countries that have rights given to people of different diversities and gender. America does not have tremendous poverty. Instead we have choices given to us by the people who fought and died for the American people. Without George Washington and the other patriots who planted the first seed in the ground and help plant the American nation we live in now who knows what America would be like now. One of the most important and well-known facts about America is freedom. We are granted the freedom or choice in our lives and how we live. We are given freedom of speech and press that lets us give our opinions and aspects of the community we live in. also we have the freedom of voting for our leaders and representatives. The American people are also given freedom of clothes, music, and number of kids. This right of freedom in our lives is one of many rights given to us. Equality in America is very important, and people have fought for it for years. In my opinion equality makes people more open minded about other peoples cultures and creates a better nation. There are still people in America and in other countries who do not believe in a community of equality and the respect of other cultures, and that is something that is not perfect about America. With that way of thinking and believing those people create the hysteria of violence and hate in America. All because they do not know about the culture they hate so bad, but we still have the people who do believes that equality is important, and they ... ... The people in America are not surrounded by a majority of starving people. Instead we have one of the most powerful economy in the world. America offers so much to the people who live in the U.S., but America will always be full of criticism, violence, and people who are offended by everything. America still seems to manage to be one of the world's best nations. The first Americans planned America to be as successful as it is, but for America to be more peaceful. America is not one of the most peaceful places, but it is not the most dangerous place to live. Even political parties lie and cheat each other. A lot of the Americans are greedy, because they take advantages of what America offers to their citizens. Even though America is not perfect I am still glad to live in the U.S.

Unconditional Love

Unconditional Love With jolting word choice and the effective application of imagery, the poem My Papa’s Waltz, written in 1948 by Theodore Roethke (1908 – 1963), presents the speaker as a child who is trapped in a world tragically affected by alcoholism and physical abuse yet who relentlessly attempts to attain love and affection from his drunken and violent father. The whimsical lyrics prompt the reader to recognize that although this poem depicts the essence of a child, the implication of a life of patterned torture is in deep contrast to the reality of a carefree childhood. My Papa’s Waltz is written in quatrain form purposely echoing the sing song sound of idyllic childhood rhymes to contrast the meaning of the poem which illustrates a childhood experience with an alcoholic and abusive father who, despite the ongoing pain inflicted, is still loved unconditionally by his son. The speaker relates this experience in his childhood with his drunken father in an almost affectionate tone, yet with the distain of the alcoholism and violence soundly ringing through. He states, â€Å"The whiskey on your breath, Could make a small boy dizzy; But I hung on like death: Such waltzing was not easy,† (lines 1-4). The speaker’s tone reveals that although his father drinks to the point of his breath being intoxicating and that the situation is confusing to the lad, he still â€Å"hung on like death,† grappling with his hope that if he continued â€Å"the waltz† – the relationship with his father – that he would retain his father’s love. In the last line of the stanza, the speaker’s resolute determination of continuing with the difficult waltz lends credence to the optimism of his youth which is evident in his perseverance to experience the father-son relationship. The word choices throughout the poem, such as â€Å"death,† â€Å"battered,† â€Å"scraped,† and â€Å"beat† imply that the speaker’s childhood is certainly not a functional one and, moreover, is filled daily with the cruel interactions of his hardened father. The speaker reflects, â€Å"We romped until the pans, Slid from the kitchen shelf; My mother’s countenance, Could not unfrown itself,† (5-8). This passage suggests through detailed imagery that although this young boy is being abused by his father, with household items being knocked from their places with the shaking of the violence, his mother shamefully remains a silent but disapproving bystander as she witnesses her child’s horrendous beatings. The brutal scene continues to unfold as â€Å"The hand that held my wrist, Was battered on one knuckle; At every step you missed, My right ear scraped a buckle,† (9 –12). In a vivid display of terrifying progression, the father grasps the boy’s wrist with his hand in an attempt to land yet another steady blow, battering his knuckles even more. When his drunken state causes him to stagger, the boy’s ear scrapes against his belt buckle, instead. As the father’s tension and fury explodes from the failed strike, the speaker recounts that his father â€Å"beats time on my head†¦ then waltzed me off to bed,† creating a vision of a frenzied rage as he is repeatedly hit until he is thrown violently into his room at the end of the beating (13, 15). Throughout this instance of abuse it is quite clear that this child’s love for his father is steadfast and unwavering. Regardless of the incessant beating, the last line of the poem is the boy’s emphatic plea for love and acceptance as he was â€Å"still clinging to (his) shirt,† (16). While he notes his father’s â€Å"palm caked hard with dirt,† the excusing tone suggests that he recognizes the hard life his father lives and thus pardons his cruelty. As is often the case with an abused person, no matter the depths of the abuse that is endured, a longing and a resilient hope for a functional, loving and nurturing relationship with one’s parent continues, as is displayed in My Papa’s Waltz. Works Cited Roethke, Theodore. My Papa’s Waltz. Literature for Composition, 8th ed. Eds. Sylvan Barnet, William Burto, William E. Cain. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. 807.

Nike Case Study - 1219 Words

Case Discussion Questions 1. Should Nike be held responsible for working conditions in foreign factories that it does not own, but where subcontractors make products for Nike? Some people probably think that designing and marketing its products is what Nike is responsible for. But outsourcing its manufacturing divisions into foreign countries doesn ´t release Nike from the responsibility. During a developing process manufacturing is one of the most important intermediate steps and because of that it belongs to Nike ´s responsibilities, no matter if they own the manufacturer or not. Everybody knows that it is hard to keep the overview about every developing stage but if you decide to put this step into a foreign country, you have to†¦show more content†¦The next step is the improvement of working conditions. Here an employee should work maximum â€Å"54 hours a week† and of course the monthly salary of the employees is supposed to be minimum â€Å"103$†. The combination of a safe workplace and fair adjusted working conditions lead to a positive feeling for the employees and gives critics no space to create negative press. 3. In Indonesia, an income of $2.28 a day, the base pay of Nike factory workers, is double the daily income of about half the working population. Half of all adults in Indonesia are farmers, who receive less than $1 a day. Given these national standards, is it appropriate to criticize Nike for the low pay rates of its subcontractors in Indonesia? Of course it is! If a farmer is sick and needs to go home, he can. If he did not finish the minimum amount of crop he is not supposed to stay at the field. He is not imperiled to toxic chemicals and does not have to remain silence. The working conditions in those low-wage factories are worse than in every other job. 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